The Indian World of George Washington Read online

  The Indian World of George Washington

  The Indian World of George Washington

  THE FIRST PRESIDENT, THE FIRST AMERICANS, AND THE BIRTH OF THE NATION

  Colin G. Calloway

  Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and certain other countries.

  Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press 198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America.

  © Colin G. Calloway 2018

  All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, by license, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reproduction rights organization. Inquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above.

  You must not circulate this work in any other form and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer.

  Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

  Names: Calloway, Colin G. (Colin Gordon), 1953– author.

  Title: The Indian world of George Washington: the first president, the first Americans, and the birth of the nation / Colin G. Calloway.

  Description: New York, NY: Oxford University Press, [2018] |

  Includes bibliographical references and index.

  Identifiers: LCCN 2017028686 | ISBN 9780190652166 (hardback: alk. paper)

  ebook ISBN 978–0–19–065218–0

  Subjects: LCSH: Washington, George, 1732–1799—Relations with Indians. |

  Indians of North America—Government relations. | Indians of North America— Wars—1750–1815. | Indians of North America—History—18th century. | United States—History—French and Indian War, 1754–1763. | United States—History—Revolution, 1775–1783.

  Classification: LCC E312.17 .C17 2018 | DDC 323.1197090/33—dc23

  LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017028686

  1 3 5 7 9 8 6 4 2

  Printed by Edwards Brothers Malloy, United States of America

  To Marcia, Graeme, and Meg

  Contents

  List of Illustrations

  Individual Native Americans in the George Washington Story

  Author’s Note

  Acknowledgments

  Introduction

  ONE: LEARNING CURVES

  chapter 1: Virginia’s Indian Country

  chapter 2: The Ohio Company and the Ohio Country

  chapter 3: Into Tanaghrisson’s World

  chapter 4: Tanaghrisson’s War

  chapter 5: Braddock and the Limits of Empire

  chapter 6: Frontier Defense and a Cherokee Alliance

  chapter 7: Frontier Advance and a Cherokee War

  TWO: THE OTHER REVOLUTION

  chapter 8: Confronting the Indian Boundary

  chapter 9: “A good deal of Land”

  chapter 10: The Question of Indian Allies

  chapter 11: Town Destroyer

  chapter 12: Killing Crawford

  chapter 13: Building a Nation on Indian Land

  THREE: THE FIRST PRESIDENT AND THE FIRST AMERICANS

  chapter 14: An Indian Policy for the New Nation

  chapter 15: Courting McGillivray

  chapter 16: The Greatest Indian Victory

  chapter 17: Philadelphia Indian Diplomacy

  chapter 18: Achieving Empire

  chapter 19: Transforming Indian Lives

  chapter 20: A Death and a Non-Death

  Abbreviations

  Notes

  Index

  Plates

  List of Illustrations

  Figures

  1. Map published to accompany Washington’s Ohio journal, showing the extent of Virginia’s western claims, 1754

  2. George Washington’s map, accompanying his “journal to the Ohio,” 1754

  3. Washington Peace Medal, 1792

  4. Hoboithle Mico. Hopothle Mico, or the Talassee King of the Creeks, by John Trumbull, 1790

  5. Little Turtle, 1797

  6. Silas Dinsmoor

  7. Benjamin Hawkins

  Color Photo Insert (Plates)

  1. George Washington, by Charles Willson Peale, 1772

  2. Ostenaco (Scyacust Ukah), by Sir Joshua Reynolds, 1762

  3. The Death of General Montgomery in the Attack on Quebec, by John Trumbull, 1786

  4. Louis Cook, by John Trumbull, c. 1786

  5. Joseph Brant (Thayendanegea), by Gilbert Stuart, 1786

  6. Cornplanter. Portrait of Ki-on-twog-ky, by F. Bartoli, 1796

  7. Henry Knox, by Charles Willson Peale, c. 1784

  8. Good Peter, by John Trumbull, 1792

  9. Arthur St. Clair, by Charles Willson Peale, 1782

  10. Timothy Pickering, by Charles Willson Peale, c. 1792

  11. Indian delegation in Philadelphia, c. 1800

  12. Red Jacket, after a portrait by Charles Bird King, c. 1828

  13. Apotheosis of Washington or Commemoration of Washington, by John James Barralet, 1802

  Maps

  1. Eastern North America at the Time of Washington’s Birth

  2. Washington’s Western Lands

  3. Washington’s Ohio Country, 1744–1758

  4. Shifting Boundaries and Land Cessions, 1763–1775

  5. Washington’s Invasion of Iroquoia, 1779

  6. Washington’s Western Journey, 1784

  7. The Native American South

  8. Washington’s War against the Northwestern Confederacy, 1790–1794

  Individual Native Americans

  in the George Washington Story

  Ackawonothio (Shawnee or western Delaware chief)

  Aliquippa; Queen Allaquippa (Seneca woman chief, d. 1754)

  Aroas: see Silver Heels

  Atiatoharongwen: see Cook, Louis

  Attakullakulla; Ada-gal’kala; Ouconecaw; Little Carpenter (Overhill Cherokee chief, c. 1705–1779 or 1780)

  Aupaumut, Hendrick (Stockbridge Mahican, 1757–1830)

  Beaver: see Tamaqua

  Belt of Wampum; the Belt; Kaghswaghtaniunt; Tohashwughtonionty; White Thunder (Seneca, d. by 1762)

  Big Tree; Great Tree; Karontowanen; Kiandochgowa (Seneca, d. 1792)

  Black Hoof; Catahecassa (Shawnee, c. 1740–1832)

  Bloody Fellow; Nenetuah; Nenetooyah; Washington gave him the name General Eskaqua or Iskagua, meaning “Clear Sky” (Cherokee, d. c. 1800)

  Blue Jacket; Waweyapiersenwaw (Pekowi Shawnee war chief, c. 1743–1808)

  Brant, Joseph; Thayendanegea (Mohawk war chief, 1743–1807)

  Brown, John (Chickasaw chief)

  Buckongahelas; Pachgantschihilas (Delaware chief, c. 1720–1804/5)

  Bullen, Captain James; Jimmy Bullen (Catawba chief, d. 1758)

  Canasatego (Onondaga, d. 1750 or 1760)

  Captain Jacobs; Tewea (Delaware war chief, d. 1756)

  Captain Pipe: see Hopocan

  Chutloh; Tsu-la; Kingfisher (Cherokee)

  Colbert, George; Tootematubbe (Chickasaw chief, 1764–1839?)

  Colbert, William; Cooshemataha (Chickasaw chief, d. c. 1835)

  Conoghquieson; Kanaghquaesa (Oneida sachem, d. 1776 or 1777)

  Cook, Louis or Lewis; Colonel Louis; Atiatoharongwen; Akiatonharónkwen; Atayataghronghta (Abenaki–African American–Kahnawake Mohawk, 1740–1814)

  Cooper, Polly (Oneida)


  Cornplanter; Kayenthwahkeh; Ki-on-twog-ky; sometimes called Obeal or Captain Abeel (Allegheny Seneca war chief, 1740s or 1752/53–1836)

  Cornstalk; Colesquo (Mekoche Shawnee chief, c. 1720–1777)

  Corn Tassel; Tassel; Old Tassel; Utsi’dsata (Cherokee, d. 1788)

  Cussetah Mico; Cussetah King; Cussitah King (Creek chief): see Eneah Mico

  Custaloga (Delaware chief, d. 1776)

  Delaware George; Nenatcheehunt; Nenatchehan (Delaware, d. c. 1763)

  Doublehead; Chequalaga; Chuquilatague (Cherokee, 1744–1807); brother of Corn Tassel

  Dragging Canoe; Tsí-yu-gûnsí-ni; Tsi’yu-gûnsi’ni; Chincanacina (Overhill Cherokee; head warrior of Malaquo, or Great Island and Chickamauga chief, c. 1730–1792)

  DuCoigne, Jean Baptiste (Kaskaskia chief, 1750–1811)

  Efau Hadjo; Mad Dog (Creek chief of Tuckabatchee)

  Eneah Mico; Neah Mico; Cussetah Mico; Cussetah King; Cussitah King; the Fat King; Fat King of Cussitah (Creek chief)

  Egushawa; Egushewa; Agushaway; Agashawa; Negushwa (Ottawa war chief, c. 1730–c. 1796/1800)

  Farmer’s Brother; Honanyawas; Honeyewus; Ogh-ne-wi-ge-was (Buffalo Creek Seneca chief, c. 1725–1815)

  Franchimastabé (Choctaw chief, d. c. 1801)

  Fusatchee Mico; White Bird King; Bird Tail King (Creek chief of Cussetah)

  Gill, Joseph Louis (Abenaki chief at Odanak, 1719–1798)

  Good Peter; Agwerondongwas; Agwrondougwas; Gwedelhes (Oneida chief of the Eel clan, d. 1793)

  Guyasuta; Kayashuta; Kayasota (Allegheny Seneca chief, c. 1725–1794 or 1795)

  Hagler; King Hagler; Nopkehe (Catawba chief, c. 1690/1700–1763)

  Half King: see Tanaghrisson

  Half Town; Gahgeote; Achiout (Seneca)

  Hallowing King (Creek chief of Coweta)

  Handsome Lake; Ganiodaio (Seneca, c. 1735–1815)

  Hanging Maw; Uskwa’li-gu’ta; Scolaguta (Cherokee chief, d. 1798)

  Hendrick, Theyanoguin (Mohawk, c. 1680–1755)

  Hendricks, Captain Solomon (Stockbridge)

  Hoboithle Mico; Hopoithle Mico; Opothle Mico; the Tame King; Tallassee King; Good Child King (Creek chief of Tallassee, d. 1813)

  Hopocan; Hobocan; Pipe; Captain Pipe (Delaware chief of the Wolf clan, c. 1725–1794)

  Jeskakake; known to the French as Déjiquéqué (Cayuga chief)

  Judd’s Friend: see Ostenaco

  Kanuksusy; Canachquasy; Cassiowea; Newcastle; Washington gave him the name Fairfax (Seneca, d. 1756)

  Keekyuscung; Ketiuscund (Delaware chief)

  Keenaguna; Lying Fawn (Cherokee)

  Keehteetah; Keenettehet; Kenotetah: see Rising Fawn (Cherokee)

  Killbuck; John Killbuck; Gelemend; Kaylelamund (Delaware chief of the Turtle clan, c. 1722–1811)

  Killbuck, John, Jr. (Delaware); son of John

  Killbuck, Thomas (Delaware); son of John

  Kithagusta; Ketagusta; Kitegisky; Keetakeuskah; the Prince (Cherokee); brother of Ocononosta

  Kunoskeskie: see Watts, John

  Little Turkey; Kanitta; Kanagita (Cherokee chief, d. 1802)

  Little Turtle; Mishikinaakwa (Miami war chief, 1752–1812)

  Logan; John Logan; Tachnechdorus (Mingo, 1725–1780)

  McGillivray, Alexander (Creek chief, 1759–1793)

  Mad Dog: see Efau Hadjo

  Memeskia; Old Briton (Piankeshaw Miami, d. 1752)

  Moluntha; Melonthe (Mekoche Shawnee chief, d. 1786)

  Montour, Andrew; Satellihu; Eghnisara (Oneida-French intermediary)

  Neetotehelemy; Netawatwees; Newcomer (Delaware chief, d. 1776)

  New Arrow (Seneca)

  Nimham, Abraham (Stockbridge, d. 1778)

  Nontuaka; the Northward; the North Nation (Cherokee)

  Neolin (Delaware prophet, fl. 1750s–1760s)

  Occom, Samson (Mohegan preacher, 1723–1792)

  Oconostota (Cherokee chief; First Warrior of the Overhill Cherokees and Great Warrior of the Cherokees, c. 1712–1782)

  Ogaghsagighte; Jean Baptiste (Kahnawake Mohawk)

  Opechancanough (Powhatan chief, 1545–1644)

  Orono, Joseph (Penobscot chief, 1688?–1801)

  Ostenaco; Ustenaka; Judd’s Friend; also known by his war title Outacite, Outacity, Outassite, Skiagusta, or Mankiller of Keowee (Cherokee chief; Second Warrior of the Overhill Cherokees, c. 1703–c. 1780)

  Otsequette; Otsiquette, Peter; Ojekheta; Otchikeita (Oneida, d. 1792); adopted son of the marquis de Lafayette

  Painted Pole; Red Pole; Messquakenoe (Shawnee, d. 1797)

  Paxinosa; Bucksinosa (eastern Shawnee chief)

  Pisquetomen (Delaware, d. c. 1763), brother of Shingas and Tamaqua

  Piominko; Piomingo; Opoia Mutaha; Mountain Leader (Chickasaw chief, c. 1750–1798)

  Powhatan; Wahunsonacock (Powhatan chief, c. 1547–1618)

  Pontiac (Ottawa war chief, c. 1720–1769)

  Raven: (Cherokee) war title of Chota, or Colonah; the Raven of Chota at the time was Savanukah, nephew of Oconostota

  Raven Warrior: (Cherokee) war title of Hiwassee

  Red Jacket; Sagoyewatha, “Keeps Them Awake”; Cowkiller (Seneca, c. 1758–1830)

  Rising Fawn; Keehteetah; Keenettehet; Kenotetah (Cherokee from Hiwassee)

  Saint-Aubin, Ambroise (Maliseet chief, d. 1780)

  Sayengeraghta; Sayenqueraghta; Kayenquarachton; Kayinguaraghtoh; Old Smoke; Vanishing Smoke; the Seneca King (Seneca chief, d. 1786)

  Scarouady; Scaroyady; Monacatootha; Monacatoocha (Oneida half king, fl. 1751–1756)

  Shingas (Delaware war chief, fl. 1740–1763)

  Silver Heels; Aroas (Seneca messenger); son-in-law of Belt of Wampum

  Skenandoah; John Skenandon (Oneida, d. 1816)

  Swashan (Abenaki chief)

  Taboca (Choctaw chief)

  Tamaqua; the Beaver; King Beaver (Delaware chief, d. c. 1770)

  Tanaghrisson; Tanachrisson; Thanayieson; Johonerissa; Deanaghrison; the Half King (Seneca, c. 1700–1754)

  Tarhe; the Crane (Wyandot chief, 1742–1818)

  Teedyuscung; baptized as Gideon (eastern Delaware chief, 1700–1763)

  Tekakiska; Tekakisskee; Taken Out of the Water (Cherokee)

  Teesteke; Toostaka; Common Disturber; the Waker (Cherokee)

  Thaosagwat, Hanyerry or Hanyost (Oneida, d. 1779)

  Tomah, Pierre (Maliseet chief, fl. 1775–1780)

  Ucahula (Cherokee warrior)

  Uhhaunauwaunmut, Captain Solomon (Stockbridge)

  Ugulayacabe; Wolf’s Friend (Chickasaw, fl. 1780s–1799, d. by 1805)

  Vincent, Captain John (Kahnawake Mohawk)

  Vincent, Lewis; Louis Vincent; Captain Lewis; Sawantanan; Sawatanen (Huron from Lorette; Dartmouth graduate)

  Wawhatchee (Cherokee, head warrior of Keowee)

  Watts, John; Kunoskeskie; Young Tassel (Chickamauga Cherokee chief, d. 1802)

  White Bird King; Fusatchee Mico (Creek chief)

  White Eyes; Quequedegatha; Koquethagechton (Delaware war chief of the Turtle clan, c. 1730–1778)

  White Eyes, George Morgan; son of White Eyes

  White Lieutenant (Creek war chief of Okfuskee, d. 1799) [There was also a White Lieutenant of Coushatta and of Oakchoy]

  White Mingo; Kanaghorait (Seneca chief, d. by 1777)

  Wingenund (Delaware chief)

  Author’s Note

  There is no general agreement about the appropriate collective term to apply to the indigenous peoples of North America. Although I occasionally use Native, Native American, indigenous, or, as in the title, First Americans, I most often use Indians or Indian people, which was the term most commonly used at the time. In writing a book aimed at a broad readership, I have used the names for Indian nations that seem to be the most readily recognizable to the most people: Iroquois rather than Haudenosaunee; Mohawks rather than Kanienkehaka; Delawares rather than Lenni Lenapee; and Cherokee, which derives from other people’s name for them, rather than how Cherokees referred to thems
elves, Ani-Yunwiya, “the principal people.” Applying the same criteria to individuals necessarily involves some inconsistencies, such as Joseph Brant rather than Thayendanegea and White Eyes instead of Quequedegatha or Koquethagechton, but Attakullakulla rather than Little Carpenter and Piominko rather than Mountain Leader.

  Acknowledgments

  I have accumulated many debts in the course of researching and writing this book. My notes cite the many scholars of Native American history and of George Washington whose work has guided and informed me. A glance at the number of times PGW appears in the notes will convey a sense of how much I have relied upon and benefited from the dedicated and meticulous work of the teams of scholars who have compiled, edited, and made accessible the Papers of George Washington.

  Dartmouth College supported my work with sabbatical leave and the award of a senior faculty fellowship. Years of teaching at a college where I have Native and non-Native students in every class has been invaluable preparation for writing a book like this for a broad spectrum of readers, some of whom may see themselves on opposing sides of the country’s history. Macy Ferguson and Presidential Scholars Theresa Smith and Kevin Schorr all assisted early in the project by gathering material from the Washington Papers; Theresa continued to contribute with sustained interest and some excellent research of her own.

  For encouragement, conversations, suggestions, interest, and support at different times along the way, and in some cases all along the way, I am grateful to Douglas Bradburn, Timothy Breen, Catherine Brekus, Stephen Brumwell, Ric Burns, the late Drew Cayton, Jay Hull, David Hildebrand, N. Bruce Duthu, Dan Gerstle, Patrick Griffin, Ed Hamilton, Fred Hoxie, Tsianina Lomawaima, Michael McDonnell, Alyssa Mt. Pleasant, Kristofer Ray, James C. Rice, Chris Rogers, Mark Sampson-Vos, Elliott West, David Silverman, Rick Thompson, Paul Williams, and Jace Weaver. Thomas Agostino, Kris Ray, and James Rice read and provided feedback on selected chapters from an early draft of the manuscript; Stephen Brumwell, Michael McDonnell, and David Silverman read the whole thing.

  I am deeply grateful to the staffs of the Baker-Berry Library and Rauner Library at Dartmouth College; the New York Public Library, Manuscripts and Archives Division; the Massachusetts Historical Society; and Meg McSweeney and the David Library of the American Revolution at Washington Crossing, Pennsylvania. Having spent a quarter of a century working in a Native American Studies program, I wanted to complete this book at George Washington’s Mount Vernon in Virginia. The Fred W. Smith National Library for the Study of George Washington awarded me a fellowship that allowed me to do so. Doug Bradburn, Stephen McLeod, Mark Santangelo, Mary Jongema, Emily Rosa, and all their colleagues and staff at Mount Vernon made the experience pleasant and productive beyond all my expectations.